Newfoundland
and Labrador
Table of Contents
Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland, one of the four Atlantic provinces of Canada, consisting
of the island of Newfoundland and, on the mainland, a coastal portion of
the Labrador region. 
The
island of Newfoundland (108,860 sq km/42,031 sq mi) is situated off the
eastern coast of North America between the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the
Atlantic Ocean. The Labrador portion (296,860 sq km/114,618 sq mi) is separated
from the island by the Strait of Belle Isle; it is bounded on the east
by the Atlantic Ocean and on the south and west by Québec Province.
Newfoundland became part of Canada on March 31, 1949, as the tenth province.
Until the early 20th century, Newfoundland's economy was based almost completely
on fishing. By the early 1990s, although the manufacturing and service
sectors had expanded, the provincial economy was dominated by mining. The
name Newfoundland appears in British records as early as 1502 and originally
was applied to all newly discovered areas in the North Atlantic.
Land and Resources
Newfoundland, with a total area of 405,720 sq km (156,649 sq mi), is
the seventh largest province in Canada; less than 1% of the land is owned
by the federal government. The extreme dimensions of the island are 523
km (325 mi) from north to south and 515 km (320 mi) from east to west;
extreme dimensions of the Labrador region are 1046 km (650 mi) from north
to south and 724 km (450 mi) from east to west. Elevations range from sea
level to 1622 m (5322 ft) atop Mount
Caubvick (known as Mont
D'Iberville in Québec) in the Torngat
Mountains in northern Labrador. The deeply indented shoreline totals
13,676 km (8498 mi) for the island and 15,286 km (9498 mi) for Labrador.
Physical Geography
The island of Newfoundland forms the northern extremity of the Appalachian
geological province of eastern North America. The island's four physiographic
regions display a marked southwestern to northeastern alignment. The southeastern
part of the island belongs to the Atlantic Uplands region and is underlain
by ancient erosion-resistant rocks. To the north is the Central Lowland,
a region that has formed in the softer sedimentary rocks. To the west lies
the Newfoundland Highlands, a region that comprises the Long Range Mountains.
The flat summits of these mountains have an average elevation of about
600 m (about 1970 ft). A narrow coastal plain on the western shore of the
island is part of the Saint Lawrence Lowland region. The Labrador portion
of Newfoundland lies entirely within the Canadian Shield. This is a region
of ancient erosion-resistant rocks. The interior is an uneven plateau with
elevations averaging about 305 m (about 1000 ft). Elevations are higher
along the coast, rising to 1622 m (5322 ft) in the Torngat Mountains of
the extreme north. Glaciation has left its mark on both mainland and island
regions; most hilltops have been scraped bare, and many valleys and low-lying
areas contain a thick mantle of rocky glacial deposits. To the southeast
of the island is a shallow area of the Atlantic Ocean known as the Grand
Banks, one of the world's richest fishing grounds.
Rivers and Lakes
The river shown to the left is Eclipse River, Labrador. The longest river
is the Churchill in Labrador; with its tributaries it drains much of the
Labrador Plateau. At Churchill Falls, the river drops some 75 m (some 245
ft); a large hydroelectric power project has appreciably diminished the
flow over the falls. The major rivers draining the island are the Exploits,
Gander, and Humber.
Thousands of lakes, ponds, and bogs are found throughout the province.
On the island are many long, fingerlike lakes that have formed in glacial
valleys; among the largest are Grand, Red Indian, and Gander lakes. The
province's largest lake is the huge Smallwood Reservoir formed on the Churchill
River.
Climate
The climate of Newfoundland varies greatly. In the interior of Labrador,
the climate is continental with very cold winters and brief, warm summers.
The cold Labrador current keeps the eastern coast cool. In the eastern
part of the island of Newfoundland, the climate is moderated by marine
influences, and winters are much milder and summers are warmer and longer.
The average temperature ranges from about -1.1° C (about 30° F)
in southern Labrador to about 5° C (about 41° F) in southeastern
Newfoundland Island. The recorded temperature has ranged from -51.1°
C (-60° F) in 1973, in southwestern Labrador, to 41.7° C (107.1°
F) in 1914, at North West River along Lake Melville. Precipitation increases
from north to south. The annual average ranges from 432 mm (17 in) in northern
Labrador to 1524 mm (60 in) in the southern part of the island. Precipitation
is distributed evenly throughout the year. Rain and fog are frequent in
St. John's, which is also one of Canada's windiest cities.
Plants and Animals
About 60 percent of Newfoundland is forested, although only about one-half
the forest is of commercial value. The province lies in the boreal forest
zone, or taiga, and the dominant trees are conifers, primarily black spruce
and balsam fir. Other species include birch, larch, white spruce, aspen,
and occasionally white and red pine. In Labrador the tree line extends
along the coast; north of this line lies subarctic tundra. Wildlife is
diverse, and large mammals are plentiful. 
Caribou,
moose, and black bear are common in all areas, and polar bears are found
in the north. Among the many small fur-bearing animals are muskrat, beaver,
red fox, lynx, otter, and hare. Porcupine, wolf, and squirrel are also
found in the Labrador region. Sea fowl nest in great numbers on some of
the province's headlands and nearshore islands; the most common are murre,
gannet, and kittiwake. Salmon, lobster, crab, squid, herring, mackerel,
and capelin are numerous in most of the bays of Newfoundland. Cod, halibut,
flounder, redfish, and turbot are plentiful in the Grand Banks and some
coastal waters.
Mineral Resources
Newfoundland has abundant mineral resources. Huge iron-ore deposits
are found in western Labrador and at Bell Island in Conception Bay. Copper,
lead, and zinc are found on the island, as are asbestos, gypsum, fluorite,
and talc. Uranium is found in eastern Labrador. Petroleum has been discovered
off the coast of Newfoundland Island, and natural gas off the coast of
Labrador.
Population
According to the 1991 census, Newfoundland had 568,474 inhabitants,
virtually the same as in 1986. The overall population density in 1991 was
about 1.4 per sq km (about 3.6 per sq mi); the distribution of population,
however, was extremely uneven, with most of the people concentrated on
the coast of Newfoundland Island. The entire area of Labrador had less
than 1 person for every 2.6 sq km (less than 1 per sq mi). English was
the first language of more than 98 percent of the population; less than
1 percent had French as their only mother tongue. About 4700 Native Americans,
4100 Inuit (Eskimo), and 1400 Métis (persons of mixed Native American
and white ancestry) lived in the province in the late 1980s. Roman Catholics
formed the largest single religious group in the province; other major
religious groups included the Anglican Church of Canada and the United
Church of Canada. Approximately 54 percent of all the residents of Newfoundland
lived in areas defined as urban, and the rest lived in rural areas. St.
John's is the biggest city and capital of the province. Other sizable communities
include Mount Pearl, Corner Brook, Conception Bay South, and Grand Falls-Windsor.
Education and Cultural
Activity
In the past, the geographic isolation of Newfoundland and of the individual
communities within the province greatly contributed to the growth of folk
arts such as ballad singing, dancing, and storytelling. Since World War
II, this cultural uniqueness has been partly eroded because of the impact
of the mass media.
Education
The province's first school was established at Bonavista in 1726, and
the present public education system dates from 1874. Historically, education
in Newfoundland has been under church administration, and today most schools
are denominational, although publicly supported. In the early 1990s Newfoundland
had 507 elementary and secondary schools, with a combined annual enrollment
of 123,000 pupils. Few children attended private schools. Newfoundland's
only university is Memorial University of Newfoundland, in St. John's;
founded in 1925, it has about 13,000 students. The province also has 12
community colleges with a combined enrollment of more than 4000 students.
Cultural Institutions
Most of the province's cultural institutions are located in St. John's.
Among the most important of these are the Newfoundland Museum, which contains
historical exhibits and artifacts of Beothuk people, the original inhabitants
of the area, and the Memorial University Art Gallery. A museum of transatlantic
aviation is located at the Gander International Airport. The largest library
of Newfoundland is the A. C. Hunter Library, at the Arts and Culture Centre
in St. John's; others include the Legislative Library and the Memorial
University Library, both in St. John's. The Newfoundland Drama Festival
and the Arts and Letters competition, both first held in 1950, are important
cultural events. Cultural and art centers built in St. John's in 1967 and
in Corner Brook in 1968 host visiting ballet, theater, and concert companies.
The Newfoundland Symphony Orchestra is based in St. John's.
Historical Sites
Newfoundland
has several landmarks commemorating early inhabitants. Port au Choix contains
a Native American burial ground approximately 4000 years old, and L'Anse-aux-Meadows
is the site of a Viking village from about AD 1000. Cabot Tower, erected
in 1897 to commemorate John Cabot's first voyage to the region in 1497,
stands in the Signal Hill National Historic Site at the entrance to St.
John's Harbor. Other landmarks include Ferryland, the site of a settlement
established by Lord Baltimore in the 1620s; Castle Hill National Historic
Site at Placentia, with a fort from the 1670s; and Cape Spear National
Historic Site, the easternmost point of North America.
Sports and Recreation
Trout and salmon fishing in Newfoundland are excellent, and hunting
is also popular. The completion of the Trans-Canada Highway in 1966 encouraged
the development of tourism. One of the most popular annual sports events
is the regatta on Quidi Vidi Lake near St. John's, held since 1826.
Communications
In the late 1980s Newfoundland had 23 commercial AM radio stations,
5 commercial FM radio stations, and 3 television stations. The first station
to go on the air was VOWR in St. John's in 1924. The first daily newspaper
in Newfoundland, the Evening
Telegram, appeared in St. John's in 1879 and has been published ever
since. The only other daily published in the province is the Western Star
of Corner Brook.
Government and Politics
Newfoundland has a parliamentary form of government.
Executive
The formal head of Newfoundland is the lieutenant governor, who is appointed
by the Canadian governor-general in council for five years and who represents
the Crown. The actual chief executive is the premier, usually the leader
of the majority party in the provincial assembly. The premier appoints
the members of the executive council (cabinet), who administer individual
departments.
Legislature
Newfoundland has a unicameral legislature called the House of Assembly.
This body has 52 members who are elected for a maximum term of five years.
Judiciary
The highest court of Newfoundland, the supreme court, consists of the
court of appeal, with 8 judges (including the chief justice), and the trial
division, with 13 judges. Other courts include the Unified Family Court
and various provincial courts. All judges are appointed, supreme court
judges by the federal government, lower court judges by the provincial
government.
Local Government
The main unit of local government is the municipality. In the early
1990s Newfoundland had 3 cities, 171 towns, and 139 communities. The municipalities
are governed by elected councils.
National Representation
Newfoundland is represented in the Canadian Parliament by six senators
appointed for life by the federal government, and seven elected members
of the House of Commons.
Politics
The province has two major parties, the Liberal and Progressive Conservative.
The Liberals dominated in both federal and provincial politics from 1949
to the late 1960s. Since that time power has been about equally shared
between the two parties.
Economy
Because of the nearness of the Grand Banks, one of the world's richest
fishing grounds, Newfoundland's economy has historically been dominated
by the fishing industry. Since the end of the 19th century, however, the
forestry industry and, later, the mining industry have grown in importance.
Today minerals are by far the most valuable commodity produced in the province.
Although the economy of Newfoundland expanded substantially during the
1980s, it still had the lowest income per capita of any Canadian province
as the 1990s began.
Agriculture
Farming accounts for less than 1 percent of the province's annual gross
domestic product. The province has about 725 farms (mostly on the island
of Newfoundland), averaging 65 hectares (161 acres) in size. Less than
1 percent of the province's land is classified as farmland, and most of
it is still undeveloped. Much of the island has no agricultural soil, and
the cool summers and lack of sunshine limit crop maturation. The leading
crops include vegetables (especially turnips, cabbage, and carrots), greenhouse
products, berries, and potatoes. The principal agricultural products are
livestock, dairy, and poultry products.
Forestry
The forestry industry accounts for about 1 percent of the annual gross
domestic product in Newfoundland. The province's large forest resources
are used mainly in the production of newsprint. Nearly all the output is
of two varieties, black spruce and balsam fir; white birch is the only
hardwood tree that is of any significance. The province supplies the major
portion of its lumber needs.
Fishing
The fishing industry accounts for about 3 percent of the annual gross
domestic product in Newfoundland. Cod is the traditional staple of the
fishing economy. Shrimp, lobster, crab, turbot, flounder, and sole are
also taken, but none of these catches is even one-fourth as large as the
cod catch. The proportion of the employed population that engages in fishing
is substantially higher than the Canadian average.
Mining
The mining industry accounts for 4 percent of the province's annual
gross domestic product. By far the most important mineral is iron ore,
found in the Schefferville area of Labrador. Iron ore accounts for more
than 90 percent of the value of the province's mineral output, and, by
weight, constitutes more than half of the Canadian total. Other metals
mined include silver and gold. The mining of nonmetallic minerals such
as asbestos and gypsum also contributes to the economy.
Manufacturing
Enterprises engaged in manufacturing account for 13 percent of the annual
gross domestic product in Newfoundland and employ about 22,000 workers.
The most important industries are those that manufacture fish products
and pulp and paper products; chemical and nonmetallic minerals industries
are also significant. The major centers of industrial production are St.
John's and Corner Brook. Because industry is dominated by the processing
of raw materials, a number of small centers in the rural areas of Newfoundland
have manufacturing plants.
Tourism
As in the other Atlantic provinces, 
tourism
has become increasingly important to the Newfoundland economy. In the early
1990s about 265,000 nonresidents visited Newfoundland; overall, travelers'
expenditures totaled about $600 million annually. Tourist attractions include
the city of St. John's, the excavated Viking settlement at L'Anse-aux-Meadows,
and the many picturesque ports along Newfoundland's coast. Gros Morne National
Park in the western part of the island is considered one of the most beautiful
national parks in Canada; the province's second national park, Terra Nova,
is on the eastern side of the island. Newfoundland also maintains some
93 provincial parks, recreation areas, and campgrounds.
Transportation
About 8 percent of Newfoundland's labor force is employed in transportation,
communications, and other utilities; the province's size and population
distribution make transportation services a critical concern. Traditionally,
the province depended mostly on coastal water transportation, but today
road and air transportation are of greater importance. The province is
served by some 11,885 km (about 7385 mi) of roads and highways; nearly
70 percent of the road system is paved. The Trans-Canada Highway links
St. John's with the western coast of Canada; extending 867 km (539 mi)
within Newfoundland, it is the island's only east-west road. Because it
is nearer to Europe than any other part of North America (except Greenland),
Newfoundland has several airports that serve as important refueling stations
for transatlantic flights; these include the airports at St. John's, Gander,
Deer Lake, and Wabush. Both the western and the eastern parts of the island
are connected by ferry service to the mainland. St. John's is the most
important port, but Corner Brook, Holyrood, and Botwood are not far behind
in amount of cargo handled.
Energy
Electricity generating plants in Newfoundland have a total capacity
of nearly 7.5 million kw (about 7.3 percent of Canada's overall capacity)
and produce about 37 billion kwh of electricity each year, or approximately
7.5 percent of Canada's total. More than 95 percent of the electric energy
is generated by hydroelectric power plants. The huge Churchill Falls complex
in Labrador alone accounts for about three-quarters of the province's total
capacity. By comparison, thermal electricity generating capacity is minor.
More than 70 percent of the electricity generated is sold outside the province.
History
It is likely that aboriginal peoples lived in Newfoundland and Labrador
thousands of years before the arrival of the Europeans. Norse explorers
first discovered the area about AD 1000. Remains of a settlement at L'Anse-aux-Meadows
were uncovered in 1963. The area was visited in 1497 by the Italian-born
explorer John Cabot, sailing under the English flag, and by the Portuguese
navigator Gaspar Corte-Real in 1500. The French explorer Jacques Cartier
visited the island in 1534.
Disputed Ownership
Following Cabot's landfall, England made no attempt at colonization,
but during the 16th century the coastal waters of the island attracted
increasing numbers of French, English, and Spanish fishermen. In 1583 Sir
Humphrey Gilbert took formal possession of Newfoundland in the name of
England. A colony, which became St. John's, was established in 1610 on
the Avalon Peninsula. During the 17th century France also acquired a foothold
on the island, establishing a base of operations on the shores of Placentia
Bay. French forces sacked and burned most of the English settlements on
the island at one time or another and for a while seemed to have the upper
hand.
In 1713, however, British sovereignty over Newfoundland was recognized
by the Peace of Utrecht. France retained only the islands of Saint Pierre
and Miquelon, off the south coast, and cod fisheries on the west coast.
Labrador became a British possession in 1763 under the terms of the Treaty
of Paris, but was transferred to Québec in 1774. It became part
of Newfoundland in 1809, but the boundary with Québec remained a
matter of dispute until it was settled in 1927. Colonization of Labrador
was not undertaken until the 19th century.
Responsible Government
The population of Newfoundland increased considerably during the 19th
century as laborers from various parts of the British Isles were brought
to work in the fisheries. With this influx of settlers and the growth of
towns, the people of Newfoundland began to resent the colonization restrictions
of the British government, directed at keeping the island merely a fishing
station, and this gave impetus to a demand for self-government. In 1832
Great Britain granted Newfoundland the right of representative government,
and in 1855 complete self-government, or responsible government, was established,
including a legislature of two houses, a cabinet, and a governor. Exploitation
of the abundant mineral resources began in 1864. International complications
about fishing rights arose when France refused to allow British colonization
on the west coast because it wanted no intrusion on its exclusive fishing
rights. The Newfoundland government retaliated in 1888 by enacting measures
that, in effect, prohibited sale of bait to French fishermen. This controversy
was settled by an Anglo-French convention in 1904, by which France surrendered
the west coast rights in return for the Los Islands and other territory
in Africa. Another controversy arose in 1905-6, when the Newfoundland legislature
passed acts that the U.S. claimed were in contravention of 1818 and 1854
treaties giving Americans fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. The question
was ultimately settled by arbitration in 1910 in favor of the U.S. A third
dispute, this time with Canada and concerning the boundary of Labrador,
was decided in 1927 by the British Privy Council. Newfoundland has owned
part of Labrador since 1763, and its permanent possession of the disputed
territory (about 285,000 sq km/about 110,000 sq mi) was confirmed. The
financial condition of Newfoundland was continually precarious, and the
adverse effects of the world economic depression of the 1930s resulted
in virtual bankruptcy. In 1934 the British Parliament suspended responsible
government, and executive authority was vested in the governor, three Newfoundlanders,
and three British commissioners, all subject to parliamentary control.
The commission worked to develop agriculture, employment opportunities,
and the educational and social welfare facilities of Newfoundland. As a
result, economic conditions improved considerably. In 1941 the island became
one of the eight British possessions in the western hemisphere on which
sites for air bases were leased to the United States. The presence of American
soldiers and the construction of U.S. air bases gave an additional boost
to the economic recovery of the island. In 1946 a 45-member national convention
was elected to investigate whether Newfoundland had accomplished its economic
recovery and to ascertain the form of government desired by its people.
Confederation with Canada
On July 22, 1948, Newfoundland chose to unite itself with Canada by
a vote of 78,323 to 71,334. On March 31, 1949, Newfoundland became the
tenth Canadian province. The Liberal party, under Premier Joseph R. Smallwood,
held power in the province for 23 years. In 1972 the Liberal party lost
control, and a new government under Premier Frank Duff Moores was formed
by the Progressive Conservative party, the first such administration in
the history of the province. The Smallwood regime had embarked on numerous
projects intended to spur the growth of modern industry in Newfoundland.
One of the more successful was the hydroelectric power development at Churchill
Falls, Labrador, which began operating in 1971. By the mid-1970s the project
was generating about 78 percent of the hydroelectricity produced in the
province. Most of the power from the Churchill Falls project was exported
from Newfoundland under an agreement with Hydro Québec. The success
at Churchill Falls contrasted with the failure of a planned oil refinery
at Come-by-Chance, in the upper reaches of Placentia Bay. The refinery
was built and began operations, only to go bankrupt; it was finally bought
by the federal energy corporation, Petro Canada, in 1981. Despite a degree
of economic growth, Newfoundland continues to depend heavily on the government
in Ottawa for subsidies. In the 1970s and 1980s many Newfoundlanders were
compelled to migrate to other parts of Canada in search of opportunity.
The Moores government was more conservative in economic matters than its
predecessor, concerning itself with the preservation of the province's
fishing industry and other natural resources. When Moores resigned, in
1979, he was succeeded by A. Brian Peckford, another Progressive Conservative,
who later that year won his own mandate; he was reelected in 1983 and 1985.
Initially Peckford secured support as a strong advocate of provincial interests
in battles with the federal government over offshore resources, the sale
of Labrador's hydroelectric power, and the management of the fisheries.
Continued economic troubles in Newfoundland bred discontent, however, and
in the 1989 election a new Liberal leader, Clyde K. Wells, became premier,
ending Conservative rule in the province. On February 22, 1996 Premier
Wells was succeeded by another Liberal, Brian Tobin.
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